A brief history of literacy in Jamaica

Education under the Spanish

The Spanish arrived in Jamaica in 1494, and settled the island in 1510. They were known to establish colonies of settlement in those territories which were a priority for them. A major settlement in the Caribbean was on Hispañola, now in the Dominican Republic, starting in 1492. Education, the domain of the Roman Catholic Church, was promoted with schools and universities established for the children of the Spanish settlers from the 16th century. The focus was on language and religious education for native people and African slaves. During the time of the Spanish in Jamaica, it is assumed that the Catholic Church operated some system of education for the small number of settlers, about 2,000 people, before the English invaded in 1655.

Education in Britain and her Jamaican colony

The English under Oliver Cromwell’s republic captured Jamaica from the Spanish in 1655. After the Spanish left, the English took control of an island occupied by former Spanish enslaved Africans and, quite possibly, remnants of the native Taino peoples. Land in Jamaica was allocated to the men of the army and navy who accompanied General Venables and Admiral Penn on this military expedition. They began to cultivate tobacco, sugar, and other crops and to rear animals using indentured labourers, many from Ireland. By 1672, they began bringing enslaved people from Africa to meet increasing labour demand.

Jamaica was largely a colony of exploitation as the people from England, Scotland, Wales and Ireland owning property in Jamaica did not actually reside there permanently. Some did, but most would return to Britain leaving their plantations to be managed by attorneys and overseers. The British people in Jamaica were doctors, lawyers, bookkeepers, civil servants, military personnel, Anglican clergy, technical plantation staff, and white indentured workers. The majority of the people providing labour gradually became enslaved Africans. With mostly white males, relations between British men and African women would give rise to a coloured or mulatto population.

In the early days, education, to the extent it existed, focused on the children of the white, and later coloured, population. They were either educated by private tutors, through the vestry system, or sent back to Britain to attend private boarding schools, such as Harrow and Eton. Sons of planters, both white and coloured, also attended Oxford and Cambridge Universities in England.

Education in Britain itself was mainly run by the church and wealthy benefactors, and was based on class (the wealthy and aristocratic), gender (mainly men), and was largely private. Literacy rates in Britain prior to the 19th century were quite low and unbalanced with men more literate than women and people in urban areas more so than those in rural areas. It would improve over time.

Enter Christian Missionaries and benefactors

Moravian missionaries were brought to Jamaica in 1754 by the Fosters, owners of Bogue and Elim Plantations in St Elizabeth, to minister to the enslaved African people. Though it was illegal to teach enslaved people to read and write, the Moravians did endeavor to combine this with religious education. Missionaries from other Christian denominations, such as Baptist, Presbyterians, and Methodists/Wesleyans also came to Jamaica in the 18th century and would become involved in education.

The first free school, Wolmer’s, was established in 1729 through a bequest from John Wolmer and other such schools followed. There is a debate about when the first elementary school was established in Jamaica which focused on the children of the enslaved. It is recorded that the Baptist, under George Liele and others, established a school for free and enslaved children at their Windward Road (Elletson Road) Chapel in 1794. In 1823, the Moravians established a school at Rowe’s Corner in Manchester which was moved to Lititz in St Elizabeth in 1826. It is possible that there were other elementary schools before this for free black and coloured children. There were free black people, besides the Maroons, living in Jamaica.

After emancipation

At emancipation, 1834 and 1838, the illiteracy rate in Jamaica would have been close to 80 per cent. The first census was conducted in 1844. The population was then about 400,000.

As a measure to promote morality and basic education, the British Parliament approved the Negro Education Grant at the same time that the 1833 Slavery Abolition Act was adopted. It was supported by the abolitionist movement. Starting in 1835, the Negro Education Grant, was to allocate £30,000 annually to support elementary and religious education for emancipated people and their children in the British West Indies, including Jamaica. This grant saw collaboration between the government and churches to establish elementary schools. This commitment was not fully honoured as the years passed and the grant was finally terminated in 1846. With its termination, churches had to find new means of addressing education.

Teacher training

The need to train school teachers at the local level was recognised. The first college to be established was the MICO Teacher’s College established in 1836. The funds came from the Lady Jane Mico Trust which also benefitted from the Negro Education Grant. Others followed such as the Bethlehem Moravian Teacher’s College in 1861, Shortwood in 1885, and St Joseph’s in 1897. A Jamaica Teachers’ Union was founded in 1894.

Education reform

The population of Jamaica was 506,154 in 1871. From then, there were education reforms through the UK 1870 Education Act, with the government taking responsibility for elementary education. These reforms were extended to the British West Indies. Following the trends in Britain, by the 1890s, elementary education in Jamaica was free and compulsory. School age became six to 14 years. The government, in association with churches, expanded the number of elementary schools across the island. Literacy rates improved.

In the 1930s, however, a school inspector raised the alarm that Jamaica’s literacy rate was very low as many children were not attending school regularly, especially in rural areas. This sparked spirited debate. This literacy issue was also linked to proposals on voter registration. It also seemed that adults, who had attended school, had regressed, losing their ability to read and write properly from lack of practice. The need to further improve literacy was recognised during this period.

Secondary education, up to the 1950s, was predominantly private and fee paying, with schools established mainly by benefactors (trusts), churches, and individual educators and many coming under the Jamaica Schools Commission from 1879.

Literacy campaigns

As part of ongoing efforts to improve education, a literacy programme, “Each one, teach one”, was launched in the 1940s by the Jamaican Christian Council. Adult literacy programmes continued into the 1960s through the Jamaica Social Welfare Commission, the Social Development Agency and churches. This would evolve into the 1970s Jamaica Movement for Adult Literacy (JAMAL) programme.

Note that the first free library was opened in Mandeville in May 1938.

The literacy rate at independence

In 1960, Jamaica’s population was about 1.9 million. From the 1960 census, the illiteracy rate was estimated at about 43 per cent. In a 1962 letter to T he Gleaner, Dr Dahlia Whitbourne, from her public health experience, estimated Jamaica’s literacy rate at 50 to 60 per cent of the population. A study conducted by the Social Development Agency, Jamaica Social Welfare Commission, the Bureau of Statistics, and the UWI’s Dr George Cumper, found that 42.9 per cent of Jamaicans, age 15 and above were illiterate. This report was issued in 1964. Thus, literacy was estimated at about 57.1 per cent for people age 15 and above. The report is cited in The National Literacy Programme: A Brief Introduction published by The National Literacy Board in 1974. This is supported by remarks made by educator, Dr Errol Miller, to the Jamaica Teachers’ Association in 2012.

Jamaica’s literacy rate then was serious cause for concern as a handicap to development and led the government to work with UNESCO on a plan to eradicate illiteracy.

The situation today

In 2025, the population was reported as 2.8 million with the literacy rate as 89 per cent. Girls are more literate than boys. Regrettably, illiteracy remains a problem in Jamaica. Improving education must be a national priority engaging the public and private sectors and civil society, including parents.

Marcia Thomas is a member of the Jamaica Historical Society and Built Heritage Jamaica